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Chromatin Structure Overview to Histone Deacetylation6Topics
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Nucleoside and Nucleotide Basics to Base Pairing and DNA Stability5Topics
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Introduction to Nucleotide Synthesis Inhibition to Broad-Spectrum Inhibitors and CPS Enzymes5Topics
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Purine Metabolism and Salvage Pathways to Genetic Code: Commaless and Universal6Topics
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DNA Replication Basics to Detailed Lagging Strand Synthesis7Topics
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DNA Repair: Nonhomologous End Joining to DNA Repair: Mismatch Repair5Topics
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Introns vs Exons: Basic Definitions to Visualizing Alternative Splicing and Protein Diversity4Topics
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tRNA Structure Overview to mRNA Stop Codons6Topics
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Introduction to DNA Mutations to Lac Operon Gene Expression States8Topics
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Cilia Structure: Motile Cilia and Basal Body to K+ Pump Inhibition6Topics
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Page 1 — Eukaryotic Gene Overview to Page 1 — RNA Processing: Splicing & Fate8Topics
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Osteogenesis Imperfecta: Genetic Basis to Menkes Disease6Topics
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Eukaryotic RNA Polymerases: Types to Splicing Diagram: Lariat & Mature mRNA7Topics
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Flow Cytometry: Basics and Applications to ELISA: Principle and Uses4Topics
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Protein Synthesis: Initiation Phase to Posttranslational Modifications: Chaperone Proteins6Topics
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Karyotyping: Principles and Applications to Molecular Cloning: Process and Applications4Topics
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Cell Cycle Phases and Regulation to p53 and Apoptosis Induction7Topics
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Introduction to Imprinting Disorders to Visualizing Normal vs. Mutated Chromosomes6Topics
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Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Functions to Specific Vesicular Trafficking Proteins7Topics
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Autosomal Dominant Inheritance to Pedigree Chart Symbols6Topics
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Peroxisome Functions to Drugs Affecting Microtubules5Topics
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Polyunsaturated Essential Fatty Acids to Water-Soluble Vitamins: Deficiencies and Coenzyme Functions5Topics
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Collagen Introduction and Type I to Collagen Synthesis: Maturation and Fibril Formation6Topics
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Vitamin B7 (Biotin): Function and Deficiency to Vitamin B9 (Folate): Deficiency, Causes, and Prevention3Topics
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Elastin: Structure and Composition to PCR Cycle: Elongation and Repetition8Topics
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Ethanol Metabolism Overview to Pharmacological Interventions in Alcohol Metabolism5Topics
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CRISPR to Interpreting Southern Blot Results5Topics
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Key Metabolic Locations to Glucose Breakdown and NADPH Production4Topics
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Transgenic Strategies in Mice to Epistasis and Aneuploidy7Topics
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Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Deficiency to The TCA Cycle (Krebs Cycle)3Topics
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Genetic Terms: Dominant Negative & Linkage Disequilibrium to Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium7Topics
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ETC Overview to Fatty Acids in Gluconeogenesis9Topics
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Autosomal Dominant Disorders to CFTR Channel Function Diagram11Topics
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Phenylketonuria: Basic Defect and BH4 Deficiency to Alkaptonuria7Topics
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X-linked Recessive Diseases Introduction to Myotonic Dystrophy6Topics
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Fatty Acid Synthesis Overview to Medium-Chain Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenase Deficiency4Topics
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Mitochondrial Diseases: MELAS & MERRF to Trinucleotide Repeat Diseases: Fragile X & Friedreich Ataxia8Topics
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Hepatic Ketone Body Synthesis to Adipocyte Metabolism: Fed State4Topics
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Autosomal Trisomies & Down Syndrome Overview to Second Trimester Screening & NIPT8Topics
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Metabolic Fuel Use: Initial Exercise to Starvation After Day 3 and Stored Energy Depletion7Topics
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Genetic Disorders: Chromosomes 3-7 to Williams Syndrome6Topics
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Dietary Lipid Absorption and Chylomicron Entry to IDL, LDL Formation, and Uptake4Topics
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Vitamin A: Functions and Forms to Vitamin B1: Beriberi Forms7Topics
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Vitamin B2: Function and Deficiency to Vitamin B6 Deficiency Symptoms7Topics
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Vitamin B12: Name, Function, and Sources to Vitamin C: Excess and Toxicity7Topics
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Vitamin D Introduction and Function to Vitamin E Deficiency and Excess Effects6Topics
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Vitamin K Function to Marasmus: Characteristics and Visuals7Topics
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Enzyme Terminology: Kinase & Phosphorylase to Rate-Determining Enzymes: Lipid Metabolism7Topics
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ATP Production Pathways to Hexokinase vs Glucokinase: Kinetics & Regulation5Topics
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Glycolysis Net Reaction to PDC: α-Ketoglutarate & Arsenic7Topics
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Introduction to Pentose Phosphate Pathway to G6PD Deficiency: Biochemical Mechanism of Oxidative Stress7Topics
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Essential Fructosuria to Galactose Metabolism Pathway & Summary6Topics
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Sorbitol Pathway and Diabetic Complications to Acidic and Basic Amino Acids6Topics
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Urea Cycle Introduction to Hyperammonemia Treatment5Topics
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Ornithine Transcarbamylase Deficiency to Catecholamine Synthesis and Degradation5Topics
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Homocystinuria: Genetic Causes to Methylmalonic Acidemia: Deficiency & Metabolism6Topics
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Glucagon to Glycogen Disorders and Enzymes6Topics
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Introduction to Glycogen Storage Diseases to McArdle Disease (Type V)6Topics
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Lysosomal Storage Diseases Intro & Tay-Sachs to Lysosomal Storage Disease Pathway6Topics
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Key Enzymes in Lipid Transport - Part 1 to Major Apolipoproteins - Part 25Topics
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Lipoprotein Functions: Chylomicron & VLDL to Familial Dyslipidemias: Dysbetalipoproteinemia & Hypertriglyceridemia5Topics
Flow Cytometry: Basics and Applications to ELISA: Principle and Uses
Content August 26, 2025
Flow Cytometry
Laboratory technique to assess size, granularity, and protein expression (immunophenotype) of individual cells in a sample.
Commonly used in workup of hematologic abnormalities (eg, leukemia, paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria, fetal RBCs in pregnant person’s blood) and immunodeficiencies (eg, CD4+ cell count in HIV).
Cells are tagged with antibodies specific to surface or intracellular proteins. Antibodies are then tagged with a unique fluorescent dye. Sample is analyzed one cell at a time by focusing a laser on the cell and measuring light scatter and intensity of fluorescence.
Flow Cytometry Setup and Data
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Data are plotted either as histogram (one measure) or scatter plot (any two measures, as shown). In illustration:
- Cells in left lower quadrant ⊖ for both CD8 and CD3.
- Cells in right lower quadrant ⊕ for CD8 and ⊖ for CD3. In this example, right lower quadrant is empty because all CD8-expressing cells also express CD3.
- Cells in left upper quadrant ⊕ for CD3 and ⊖ for CD8.
- Cells in right upper quadrant ⊕ for both CD8 and CD3.
#boundingbox_image_2
Microarrays
Array consisting of thousands of DNA oligonucleotides arranged in a grid on a glass or silicon chip. The DNA or RNA samples being compared are attached to different fluorophores and hybridized to the array. The ratio of fluorescence signal at a particular oligonucleotide reflects the relative amount of the hybridizing nucleic acid in the two samples. Used to compare the relative transcription of genes in two RNA samples. Can detect single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and copy number variants (CNVs) for genotyping, clinical genetic testing, forensic analysis, and cancer mutation and genetic linkage analysis when DNA is used.
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
Immunologic test used to detect the presence of either a specific antigen or antibody in a patient’s blood sample. Detection involves the use of an antibody linked to an enzyme. Added substrate reacts with the enzyme, producing a detectable signal. Can have high sensitivity and specificity, but is less specific than Western blot. Often used to screen for HIV infection.
Topics Covered:
- Flow Cytometry: Basics and Applications
- Flow Cytometry: Data Analysis
- Microarrays: Principle and Applications
- ELISA: Principle and Uses